Conducting Research

In order to convince our audience that whatever we are saying reflects the true state of things, we must conduct research to find evidence to support our claims.

Introduction

These days, we can easily find out more about a subject by typing something into Google or by asking a digital assistant like Siri or Alexa. In everyday situations this is fine, but when it comes to our English studies we need to adopt a more systematic approach to finding information.

This guide presents a step-by-step approach to conducting systematic research. We learn how to formulate a research question, consult a range of sources, and keep track of what we find using a research table.

While this guide is designed for English classes, much of the information is applicable to other subjects.

Let's get started.

Step 1 - Formulate a Research Question

Before we can look for answers we must understand our question. Without this understanding, our research will be unfocused and unorganised because we don't know what we're looking for.

Sometimes, an assessment task includes a question that we must answer, as in the example below.

Here we have a nice, concise question that we can use to guide our research.

Sometimes, however, we may be presented with a question that is vague or unfocused. Or, we may be given no question at all, as in the example below:

Here we have a general subject (the consumption of texts before and after the internet), but not a specific question that needs to be answered.

So, we need to formulate our own.

This question should reflect the subject we have been asked to investigate, and it should be a question that we can reasonably expect to answer within the scope of the assessment task.

In other words, we shouldn't bite off more than we can chew.

We should take some time to brainstorm potential ideas and consult with our teacher to make sure we are happy with our final research question.

Here are some potential research questions we could use for this assessment task.

Note how each of these questions is slightly different to the others, whilst remaining relevant to the subject of the assessment task.

Importantly, we should formulate a research question that interests us. That is, we should create a question that we would genuinely like to know the answer to. This will help to motivate us as we conduct our research and prepare our response.

Step 2- Search for Information

There are many different types of sources that we can consult in our research, and this number continues to increase as technology and globalisation advance.

The most important source of information in English classes is the text we are studying. Any interpretation of a text must be supported by the text itself, and we can use direct quotations or paraphrasing to demonstrate this to our reader. It may be helpful to think of these texts as the "primary sources" we are investigating (to use a term from our History classes).

However, when we are completing a research task we need to consult other "secondary sources" in order to prepare a more informed response.

Let's learn about these different types of sources, beginning with the most reliable.

Academic Journals

When one or more people working in a university have something to share with others in their field, they publish an article in an academic journal. As a result, academic journals contain the cutting edge of research.

Journal articles are the most reliable source of evidence because they go through a process called peer review. This means that other academics check the information in an article before it is published, ensuring that any claims being made are consistent with current scientific understanding.

We can use academic journals to learn what dedicated literary researchers have to say about the texts we are studying. That said, the language used in these journals can be daunting because it is aimed at other academics, not the general public.

Academic journals also require payment to read; however, your school may have access to online databases which include journal articles (check with your school librarian about this). Google Scholar can also be used to search academic journals, although many of the articles will still be behind a paywall. The online library Jstor can provide free access to some journal articles, provided you register through your school or as an independent researcher.

If you can make your way through the jargon and paywalls, academic journals offer the most reliable information available. Depending on the expectations of your school, however, you may not be expected to use them in your English assessments.

Books

When an expert in a field has something important to say about a text or subject, they can publish their findings in a book (whether physical, digital or both).

Books are a reliable source because they are edited by a publisher before being released to the public. This is a lengthy process which usually requires a writer to submit many drafts before being approved for publication. During this drafting process, the publisher will make sure grammar and punctuation errors are corrected, while also making recommendations about how to communicate meaning more effectively.

That said, although publishers are experts at publishing, we cannot expect them to be familiar with the factual claims being made in the books they publish. It is therefore possible that biased information may be presented in books, although this is less common than in the other types of sources we will look at.

Books are easier to read than academic journals because they are written for a wider audience. That said, it is still worth having a dictionary nearby while reading them.

Governmental, Educational or Non-profit Publications

Institutions such as government departments, libraries, and non-profit organisations (NPOs) are excellent sources of information. In addition to their physical and digital collections, these institutions publish reports, articles and videos which we can consult in our research.

Online, these institutions are recognisable by their websites which end with .gov, .edu or .org. These addresses are protected and require registration for approval.

Because they are generally not appealing to a commercial audience, governmental, educational or non-profit institutions can take the time to prepare well-sourced and well-presented information. That said, the articles and videos created by these organisations may still contain bias, so we should always use our critical thinking skills when engaging with them.

Media Publications

The next most reliable sources of information are media publications. Such publications take the form of articles and videos that are published physically in newspapers and magazines, or online through websites and streaming services.

These publications are researched and written by journalists and they are checked by editors before publication. This improves their reliability; however they may also reflect the editorial viewpoint of the companies that publish them.

In addition, these organisations are usually commercial in nature (recognisable by their .com website addresses). As such, there is a monetary incentive for these companies to produce content that will attract a larger audience. This can result in sensationalised "clickbait" headlines and opinionated articles which do not reflect the true state of things.

That is not to say that all media publications are too biased for us to use in our research—only that not all media companies are created equal, and that it is important for us to use our critical thinking skills when consulting them.

Self-published Sources

The internet has led to a proliferation of self-published sources. These can include posts, images and videos on social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, YouTube and Tik Tok; blogging services such as WordPress; and independent websites such as ... well, this one.

On the plus side, the ability to self publish has given voice to people who do not have the qualifications, time or money to distribute information through existing publication channels. This means that a far more diverse range of people are now able to create and share information than in the past.

We can use these publications to learn more about what "the person on the street" has to say about the texts and subjects we are studying, and from this perspective they are a refreshing alternative to the jargon and established viewpoints prevalent in traditional sources.

That said, self-published sources are rarely edited externally for grammar, expression or, importantly, reliability. It is therefore possible for anyone with access to the internet to make a claim that is not supported by evidence.

While it would be nice to think that all audiences use their critical thinking skills to ignore or refute such claims, unfortunately this is not always the case and misinformation can easily spread online.

While fact checking sources such as PolitiFact (and, here in Australia, ABC News) do excellent work, as Jonathan Swift once said, "A lie can travel halfway around the world while the truth is putting on its shoes." Therefore, we must use our critical thinking skills more than ever when engaging with self-published sources.

Step 3 - Record Findings

As we consult a range of sources in our research we need to decide what to do with the information we find. This is why it is beneficial to have a research question because it allows us to "filter" information: if a source can help us to answer our question it is useful; if it cannot, we can ignore it and move on.

Fair enough, but what do we do with the information in the useful sources?

Well, the simple answer is keep it; however, unless we want notebooks filled with endless lines of quotes and information (or, these days, endless tabs open in our browser), we need to adopt a more systematic method of recording information.

There are two things we are interested in when considering such a system: what we found and where we found it. To accommodate these requirements we can set up a research table to keep track of relevant information.

To see a research table in action, let's imagine we need to conduct research in response to one of the research questions we formulated earlier:

This is a compare and contrast question which requires us to investigate how Australians engaged with texts before and after the rise of the internet.

Therefore, when looking through our sources, we are primarily interested in two topics: Australia's engagement with texts before the internet, and Australia's engagement with texts after the internet.

Given this, we can set up a research table as follows:

In this example our research table has four columns. The column on the left records where we found our information while the other three columns record what we found. These columns are organised by topic with a final column free to record "other" information as needed.

When setting up such a research table we can include as many columns as needed to help us answer our research question.

With our table set up we can begin to record our findings, as seen in the example below:

Note how our table begins to resemble a grid.

In this grid, each horizontal row includes all the information we have found from a particular source, while each vertical column includes all the information we have found on a particular topic.

Such a grid allows us to quickly find information when preparing a response, and to keep track of where this information came from.

Note that while I have used typing to record information here, I always recommend printing a research table and writing information by hand. This is because we tend to form a closer connection to words when we write them down, and because we can easily add annotations or create links using coloured pens or highlighters.

That said, each of us should ultimately use a system that works best for our own personal style. There are plenty of resources available online that can help us to record and recall the information that we gather through our research, so don't be afraid to try a range of systems and tools until you find one that works best for you.

Or, even better, develop your own custom system that does exactly what you need it to do.

Conclusion

We spend much of our English studies analysing and interpreting literary texts. However, we should always be ready to go beyond these texts when we want to know more about where they come from, how they have been interpreted by others, and their cultural legacy.

When conducting such research it is important that we formulate a question that will help us to find exactly what we need to know. When looking for answers to this question, we should consult a range of sources and use our critical thinking skills to make sure the information we use is reliable. Finally, we can use a research table to keep track of what we have found and where we found it.

We live in a world in which it has never been easier to find information. This has led to considerable benefits, but also genuine challenges. Fortunately, by using a careful and systematic approach to conducting research, we can sift through the massive amounts of information available to find exactly what we need to know.

Downloadable Resources

• Research Table
  This is a blank copy of the research table. The file is in .docx format so it can be opened in Microsoft Word, or you can convert it to another word processor as needed. Even better, why not create a version of your own that suits your exact style and needs.

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Conducting Research Guide